A Game of Thrones Chapter Fifty-seven

SansaThe w wholes of the thr wizard room had been stripped b ar, the hunting tapestries that mogul Robert make love attractn pass and stacked in the corner in an untidy down.Ser Mandon Moore went to take his place under the throne be positioning two of his fellows of the Kingsguard. Sansa hovered by the door, for at one time unguarded. The nance had clearn her freedom of the castle as a reward for being good, yet even so, she was escorted eachwhere she went. Honor guards for my daughter-to-be, the queen c anyed them, but they did non make Sansa feel honored.Freedom of the castle meant that she could go wher eer she chose within the Red Keep so long as she promised not to go beyond the walls, a promise Sansa had been more than unstrained to give. She couldnt defend gone beyond the walls anyway. The gates were watched day and night by Janos Slynts g grizzly cloaks, and Lannister house guards were always ab come in as well. Besides, even if she could give the castle, wher e would she go? It was enough that she could walk in the yard, pick flowers in Myrcellas garden, and understand the sept to pray for her father. Sometimes she prayed in the godswood as well, since the Starks kept the experient gods.This was the first court session of Joffreys reign, so Sansa looked about nervously. A var. of Lannister house guards stood under the western windows, a line of g octogenarian-cloaked City Watch men beneath the east. Of smallfolk and commoners, she saw no sign, but under the gallery a roll up of lords great(p) and small milled restlessly. There were no more than twenty, where a hundred had been accustomed to wait upon King Robert.Sansa slipped in among them, murmuring greetings as she worked her way toward the front. She recognized black-skinned Jalabhar Xho, gloomy Ser Aron Santagar, the Redwyne twins Horror and Slobber . . . barely none of them seemed to recognize her. Or if they did, they shied away as if she had the grey plague. peaked(p) ori ginal Gyles covered his face at her approach and feigned a belong of coughing, and when funny drunken Ser Dontos started to hail her, Ser Balon Swann whispered in his spike and he turned away.And so many others were missing. Where had the rest of them gone? Sansa wondered. Vainly, she searched for couthy faces. Not one of them would meet her look. It was as if she had become a ghost, wild before her time. epicurean Maester Pycelle was seated alone at the council table, seemingly asleep, his men clasped together atop his beard. She saw passkey Varys hurry into the third house, his feet ma queen mole rat no sound. A issue later nobleman Baelish entered through the tall doors in the rear, smiling. He chatted amiably with Ser Balon and Ser Dontos as he make his way to the front. Butterflies fluttered nervously in Sansas stomach. I shouldnt be afraid, she told herself. I pay off nothing to be afraid of, it will all come out well, Joff loves me and the queen does too, she par t so.A trumpeter swans voice rang out. each hail His compassion, Joffrey of the Houses Baratheon and Lannister, the number 1 of his Name, King of the Andals, the Rhoynar, and the First Men, and nobleman of the Seven Kingdoms. All hail his lady mother, Cersei of House Lannister, ottoman regent, Light of the West, and Protector of the Realm.Ser Barristan Selmy, resplendent in white plate, led them in. Ser Arys Oakheart escorted the queen, art object Ser Boros Blount walked beside Joffrey, so six of the Kingsguard were now in the hall, all the White Swords keep on Jaime Lannister alone. Her princeno, her king nowtook the steps of the Iron Throne two at a time, while his mother was seated with the council. Joff wore plush black velvets gelded with crimson, a shimmering cloth-of-gold cape with a high collar, and on his head a golden crown crusted with rubies and black diamonds.When Joffrey turned to look out over the hall, his eye caught Sansas. He smiled, seated himself, and sp oke. It is a kings duty to penalise the disloyal and reward those who are true. Grand Maester Pycelle, I command you to learn my decrees.Pycelle pushed himself to his feet. He was clad in a magnificent robe of thickly red velvet, with an ermine collar and shiny gold fastenings. From a nodding sleeve, heavy with gilded scrollwork, he drew a parchment, unrolled it, and began to read a long list of label, commanding each in the name of king and council to present themselves and corroborate their fealty to Joffrey. Failing that, they would be adjudged traitors, their lands and titles forfeit to the throne.The names he read made Sansa hold her breath. sea captain Stannis Baratheon, his lady wife, his daughter. churchman Renly Baratheon. Both victor Royces and their sons. Ser Loras Tyrell. Lord Mace Tyrell, his brothers, uncles, sons. The red priest, Thoros of Myr. Lord Beric Dondarrion. chick Lysa Arryn and her son, the little Lord Robert. Lord Hoster Tully, his brother Ser Bry nden, his son Ser Edmure. Lord Jason Mallister. Lord Bryce Caron of the Marches. Lord Tytos Blackwood. Lord Walder Frey and his heir Ser Stevron. Lord Karyl Vance. Lord Jonos Bracken. Lady Sheila Whent. Doran Martell, Prince of Dorne, and all his sons. So many, she thought as Pycelle read on and on, it will take a whole flock of ravens to send out these commands.And at the end, close-fitting last, came the names Sansa had been dreading. Lady Catelyn Stark. Robb Stark. Brandon Stark, Rickon Stark, Arya Stark. Sansa stifled a gasp. Arya. They valued Arya to present herself and swear an oath . . . it must(prenominal)iness mean her sister had fled on the galley, she must be safe at Winterfell by now . . .Grand Maester Pycelle rolled up the list, tucked it up his left sleeve, and pulled another parchment from his right. He clear(p) his throat and resumed. In the place of the traitor Eddard Stark, it is the wish of His Grace that Tywin Lannister, Lord of Casterly Rock and Warden of t he West, take up the office of Hand of the King, to speak with his voice, lead his armies against his enemies, and carry out his royal will. So the king has decreed. The small council consents.In the place of the traitor Stannis Baratheon, it is the wish of His Grace that his lady mother, the Queen Regent Cersei Lannister, who has ever been his staunchest support, be seated upon his small council, that she may help him notice wisely and with justice. So the king has decreed. The small council consents.Sansa heard a cushy murmuring from the lords around her, but it was quickly quiesceed. Pycelle continued.It is also the wish of His Grace that his loyal servant, Janos Slynt, Commander of the City Watch of Kings Landing, be at once raised to the rank of lord and set asideed the ancient seat of Harrenhal with all its attendant lands and incomes, and that his sons and grandsons shall hold these honors after him until the end of time. It is moreover his command that Lord Slynt be seate d immediately upon his small council, to assist in the judicature of the realm. So the king has decreed. The small council consents.Sansa glimpsed motion from the corner of her eye as Janos Slynt made his entrance. This time the muttering was brazen-faceder and angrier. Proud lords whose houses went back thousands of years made way reluctantly for the balding, frog-faced commoner as he marched past. Golden scales had been sew onto the black velvet of his doub allow and rang together aristocraticly with each step. His cloak was checkered black-and-gold satin. Two ugly boys who must have been his sons went before him, struggling with the loading of a heavy metal shield as tall as they were. For his sigil he had taken a bloody spear, gold on a night-black field. The sight of it raised goose prickles up and down Sansas arms.As Lord Slynt took his place, Grand Maester Pycelle resumed. Lastly, in these times of treason and turmoil, with our beloved Robert so late dead, it is the vi ew of the council that the life and safety of King Joffrey is of paramount importance . . . He looked to the queen.Cersei stood. Ser Barristan Selmy, stand forth.Ser Barristan had been rest at the foot of the Iron Throne, as still as any statue, but now he went to one stifle and bowed his head. Your Grace, I am yours to command.Rise, Ser Barristan, Cersei Lannister verbalize. You may remove your helm.My lady? Standing, the old knight took off his high white helm, though he did not seem to understand why.You have served the realm long and faithfully, good ser, and every man and woman in the Seven Kingdoms owes you thanks. Yet now I fear your service is at an end. It is the wish of king and council that you position down your heavy burden.My . . . burden? I fear I . . . I do not . . . The new-made lord, Janos Slynt, spoke up, his voice heavy and blunt. Her Grace is es state to tell you that you are relieved as Lord Commander of the Kingsguard.The tall, white-haired(a) knight se emed to shrink as he stood there, scarcely breathing. Your Grace, he give tongue to at last. The Kingsguard is a verbalise Brotherhood. Our vows are taken for life. Only devastation may relieve the Lord Commander of his sacred trust.Whose death, Ser Barristan? The queens voice was cushioned as silk, but her words carried the whole length of the hall. Yours, or your kings?You let my father die, Joffrey said accusingly from atop the Iron Throne. Youre too old to protect anybody.Sansa watched as the knight peered up at his new king. She had neer seen him look his years before, yet now he did. Your Grace, he said. I was chosen for the White Swords in my twenty-third year. It was all I had ever dreamed, from the moment I first took steel in hand. I gave up all claim to my ancestral keep. The girl I was to wed wed my cousin in my place, I had no need of land or sons, my life would be lived for the realm. Ser Gerold Hightower himself heard my vows . . . to ward the king with all my peculiar(a)ism . . . to give my blood for his . . . I fought beside the White Bull and Prince Lewyn of Dorne . . . beside Ser Arthur Dayne, the Sword of the Morning. forrader I served your father, I helped shield King Aerys, and his father Jaehaerys before him . . . triplet kings . . . And all of them dead, Littlefinger pointed out.Your time is done, Cersei Lannister announced. Joffrey requires men around him who are young and vehement. The council has compulsive that Ser Jaime Lannister will take your place as the Lord Commander of imprecate Brothers of the White Swords.The Kingslayer, Ser Barristan said, his voice vexed with contempt. The false knight who profaned his blade with the blood of the king he had verbalise to defend. strike a heraldic bearing for your words, ser, the queen warned. You are speaking of our beloved brother, your kings own blood.Lord Varys spoke, gentler than the others. We are not unmindful of your service, good ser. Lord Tywin Lannister has gen erously agreed to grant you a handsome tract of land north of Lannisport, beside the sea, with gold and men sufficient to build you a stout keep, and servants to see to your every need.Ser Barristan looked up sharply. A hall to die in, and men to bury me. I thank you, my lords . . . but I spit upon your pity. He reached up and undid the clasps that held his cloak in place, and the heavy white garment slithered from his shoulders to fall in a heap on the floor. His helmet dropped with a clang. I am a knight, he told them. He opened the silver fastenings of his breastplate and let that fall as well. I shall die a knight.A naked knight, it would seem, quipped Littlefinger.They all laughed then, Joffrey on his throne, and the lords standing attendance, Janos Slynt and Queen Cersei and Sandor Clegane and even the other men of the Kingsguard, the five who had been his brothers until a moment ago. Surely that must have hurt the most, Sansa thought. Her heart went out to the rarefied old m an as he stood shamed and red-faced, too wrothful to speak. Finally he drew his sword.Sansa heard someone gasp. Ser Boros and Ser Meryn go prior to confront him, but Ser Barristan froze them in place with a look that dripped contempt. Have no fear, sers, your king is safe . . . no thanks to you. Even now, I could cut through the five of you as easy as a dagger cuts cheese. If you would serve under the Kingslayer, not a one of you is fit to wear the white. He flung his sword at the foot of the Iron Throne. Here, boy. dethaw it down and add it to the others, if you like. It will do you more good than the swords in the hands of these five. Perhaps Lord Stannis will chance to sit on it when he takes your throne.He took the long way out, his steps ringing loud against the floor and echoing off the bare stone walls. Lords and ladies parted to let him pass. Not until the pages had closed the great oak-and-bronze doors behind him did Sansa hear sounds again soft voices, uneasy stirrings , the shuffle of papers from the council table. He called me boy, Joffrey said peevishly, sounding younger than his years. He talked about my uncle Stannis too.Idle talk, said Varys the eunuch. Without meaning . . . He could be making plots with my uncles. I want him seized and questioned. No one moved. Joffrey raised his voice. I said, I want him seizedJanos Slynt rose from the council table. My gold cloaks will see to it, Your Grace.Good, said King Joffrey. Lord Janos strode from the hall, his ugly sons double-stepping to keep up as they lugged the great metal shield with the arms of House Slynt.Your Grace, Littlefinger reminded the king. If we might resume, the seven are now six. We find ourselves in need of a new sword for your Kingsguard.Joffrey smiled. Tell them, vex.The king and council have determined that no man in the Seven Kingdoms is more fit to guard and protect His Grace than his sworn shield, Sandor Clegane.How do you like that, dog? King Joffrey asked.The Hounds sc arred face was hard to read. He took a long moment to consider. Why not? I have no lands nor wife to forsake, and whod care if I did? The burned side of his mouth twisted. But I warn you, Ill say no knights vows.The Sworn Brothers of the Kingsguard have always been knights, Ser Boros said firmly.Until now, the Hound said in his slurred rasp, and Ser Boros fell silent.When the kings herald moved forward, Sansa realized the moment was almost at hand. She smoothed down the cloth of her skirt nervously. She was dressed in mourning, as a sign of respect for the dead king, but she had taken special care to make herself beautiful. Her gown was the ivory silk that the queen had given her, the one Arya had ruined, but shed had them dye it black and you couldnt see the stain at all. She had interlaced over her jewelry for hours and finally decided upon the elegant simplicity of a plain silver chain.The heralds voice boomed out. If any man in this hall has other matters to set before His Gra ce, let him speak now or go forth and hold his silence.Sansa quailed. Now, she told herself, I must do it now. Gods give me courage. She took one step, then another. Lords and knights stepped aside silently to let her pass, and she felt the weight of their eyes on her. I must be as strong as my lady mother. Your Grace, she called out in a soft, tremulous voice.The upper side of the Iron Throne gave Joffrey a better vantage point than anyone else in the hall. He was the first to see her. Come forward, my lady, he called out, smiling.His smile encourage her, made her feel beautiful and strong. He does love me, he does. Sansa displace her head and walked toward him, not too slow and not too fast. She must not let them see how nervous she was.The Lady Sansa, of House Stark, the herald cried.She stopped under the throne, at the spot where Ser Barristans white cloak lay puddled on the floor beside his helm and breastplate. Do you have some blood line for king and council, Sansa? the q ueen asked from the council table.I do. She knelt on the cloak, so as not to spoil her gown, and looked up at her prince on his fearsome black throne. As it please Your Grace, I ask mercy for my father, Lord Eddard Stark, who was the Hand of the King. She had respectable the words a hundred times.The queen sighed. Sansa, you disappoint me. What did I tell you about traitors blood?Your father has committed grave and terrible crimes, my lady, Grand Maester Pycelle intoned.Ah, poor sad thing, sighed Varys. She is only a babe, my lords, she does not know what she asks.Sansa had eyes only for Joffrey. He must listen to me, he must, she thought. The king shifted on his seat, Let her speak, he commanded. I want to hear what she says.Thank you, Your Grace. Sansa smiled, a shy secret smile, just for him. He was listening. She knew he would.Treason is a noxious weed, Pycelle declared solemnly. It must be torn up, root and subject and seed, lest new traitors sprout from every roadside.Do you deny your fathers crime? Lord Baelish asked.No, my lords. Sansa knew better than that. I know he must be punished. All I ask is mercy. I know my lord father must regret what he did. He was King Roberts friend and he loved him, you all know he loved him. He never wanted to be Hand until the king asked him. They must have lied to him. Lord Renly or Lord Stannis or . . . or somebody, they must have lied, otherwise . . . King Joffrey leaned forward, hands grasping the arms of the throne. Broken sword points fan out between his fingers. He said I wasnt the king. Why did he say that?His leg was broken, Sansa replied eagerly. It hurt ever so much, Maester Pycelle was giving him milk of the poppy, and they say that milk of the poppy fills your head with clouds. Otherwise he would never have said it.Varys said, A childs faith . . . such sweet innocence . . . and yet, they say wisdom oft comes from the mouths of babes.Treason is treason, Pycelle replied at once.Joffrey rocked restlessly on the throne. Mother?Cersei Lannister considered Sansa thoughtfully. If Lord Eddard were to confess his crime, she said at last, we would know he had repented his folly.Joffrey pushed himself to his feet. Please, Sansa thought, please, please, be the king I know you are, good and kind and noble, please. Do you have any more to say? he asked her.Only . . . that as you love me, you do me this kindness, my prince, Sansa said.King Joffrey looked her up and down. Your sweet words have moved me, he said gallantly, nodding, as if to say all would be well. I shall do as you ask . . . but first your father has to confess. He has to confess and say that Im the king, or there will be no mercy for him.He will, Sansa said, heart soaring. Oh, I know he will.

Evaluate Research on Conformity Making Reference to 2 Studies Essay

Conformity is the tendency to adjust ones thoughts, feelings or behaviour in shipway that are in agreement with those of a particular exclusive or group, or with accepted standards about how a person should behave in specific situations ( fond norms). It is too the key shipway that a society or culture passes down its values or behaviours to its peers through an indirect form of social influence.Deusch and Gerald (1995) first presented that the reasons of sight alineing is due to twain factors that are information social influence and prescriptive social influences. Information social influence is based on the ways people cognitively process information about specific situations. prescriptive social influence is based on our nature as social animals, and our need to be accepted and to belong in society. Individuals often conform to avoid rejection and gain social approval within society.Festinger (1954) also hold that people evaluate their own opinions and judgement through social comparisons, which is when the individual compares themselves to the peers around them When one realizes that new(prenominal)s are not behaving in the same way, or think differently, it leads to anxiety, which is known as cognitive dissonance. In order to demonstrate for conformity, Asch carried a test where the subject was given a simple assess of matching a length of line to one of three new(prenominal) comparison lines.The control subjects (who were able to take the test alone without both confederates) that served as the comparison to the variable (the individual who was tested for conformity) made just about no errors. In the experimental condition, one individual was tested inactive were surrounded by seven other confederates of the experimenter, who were told to give wrong estimates more(prenominal) or less 70% of the trials. The subject was also second to last giving their answers, so that they were faced either giving their own opinion or conform to the gr oup.The average rate of conformity was 32%. 74% conformed at least(prenominal) once and 26% never conformed. In order to identity factors influencing conformity, Asch conducted variations to his experiment. Asch run aground out that with only one confederate, only 3% of the participant conformed, and with two confederates the rate rose to 14% and with three confederates, it rose to 32%. large groups did not increase the rate of conformity. Unanimity was an another factor, where conformity was more prominent when all the confederates agreed.If one of the confederates disagreed, the participant was less likely to conform. The barrier of the task also increased conformity. Also when the participant was given the prime(prenominal) to write down their response, conformity decreased. Confidence and self-esteem was another of import role in influencing the participants, as people with high confidence powerfully believed in their opinion, and were less likely to conform. However, even the participants that did not conform still felt strong social pressure.Although these results were quite reliable to a certain extent, there were multiple criticism towards the experiment. The experiment was considered artificial with low bionomical validity. There were also demanding characteristics, where the participant may have changed their behaviour in order to please researchers. Also there was a lack in cultural diversity as the experiment may only cost the US in 1940-1950s. Because the individuals were placed in magic trick and anxiety, it also resulted in ethic concerns.Also, there were ethic concerns as the individuals were placed in deception and anxiety. Berry (1967) suggested that conformity is required by their respective survival level economics. Low food receiving societies tend to produce self- dependent independent individuals, sequence high food producing societies are group reliant and dependent. He also proven his theory by using a variation of Aschs exp eriment through using samples of the Temne Sierra Leone and the Inuit people of Canada.Hunting and fish in Eskimos show great tolerance in disciplining children, then resulting in independent and risk taking individuals. Rich farming Temne people turn in strict disciplinary measures, resulting in more dependent and group reliant individuals. Therefore the experiment resulted that the Temne people of Sierra Leone conformed significantly more than the Inuit people of Canada, probably because of the economic differences.The Temne people usually had to survive on a single crop that is harvested by all the people in the society, therefore requiring each others trust and coordination of effort. . The culture also primarily focuses on agreement and harmony. Consensus is less present in Inuit culture as their economy is based on continual hunting and gathering on a relatively individual basis. However sometimes, there have been several(prenominal) examples of minority commitment to a vie w not held by the absolute majority throughout the 20th century.This includes womens rights to vote in civil rights movement, environmental movement etc. Also research proved that minority opinions are significant in a groups decision-making process. Groupthink happens when someone in a group suggest an idea, and everyone accepts the idea without considering other possible opinions It represents the group members having concordant opinions in an issue, resulting in not pursuit alternative or disagreeing opinions, often because optimism prevents their decisions from becoming successful.

Student Debt in College

1 name Professor position date To Debt or not to Debt Why College is Worth the Investment When closely people think scarce close to college they generally cast the same instinct set. You atomic number 18 taught from a young age that college is the plainly way to go exactly is that true? With recent tuition risings and the Ameri nominate dream appear to vanish, college doesnt seem to be worth(predicate) its value anymore. Others believe that its college or you will be working at a fast forage joint for the rest of your living. Most people in-between believe that property is the determining factor merely with the amount of options should people even disturbance somewhat this?Even though college might seem like a stretch with tuition rising, college is roundthing more people should take part in because there argon so many answers to get past the property and just enjoy the full college experience. For virtually students applying for colleges is all they hold vista about since starting kindergarten. For others its been a lifelong dread about how do they even begin to try and 2 afford it try on writers online. With all the horror stories about finishing college with much(prenominal) enormous debts it lowlife really turn student s away from college.Although the prices may have gone up the investment is still something to pursue. Even in this economy, college graduates atomic number 18 much best(p) off than high- rail graduates. Yes, white-collar employees are losing their jobs. only the unemployment vagabond for people over twenty five years old who try for at least a bachelors degree is 4. 4 percent, compared with 9. 3 percent for the people that age who hold only a high-school diploma, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, as put by robin Wilson in A Lifetime of learner Debt, Not likely. school-age childs complain about the large debts they can conjure up during these college years you truly are better off with it. Its non ju st about the temporary hookup of paper its about the opportunities that it creates. For most people college can be the best time of their lives. You just got to be smart with what you have. Sara M. Harrington (A Lifetime of Student Debt, Not likely) wanted to be smart and looked a creative thinker. She didnt want to seize any gold that she knew she couldnt pay back.Some students just want to not worry about any costs and just be through with college and get into the working world not thinking of any consequences. Although some might argue that you shouldnt think about the future just think about today, you really need to be logical when borrow money. You shouldnt let money run your life but it ordinarily does. Another thing to consider is that some of the students coming out with such enormous debts are because they go to private colleges. For some its similarly far out of reach and they choose 3 ommunity colleges and are most of the time they are better off. For me I chose th e community college way because I knew my parents could not afford to help me if I went away. Without my parents I wouldnt be able to go to school, but I know even the payments for school now are hard enough. I could neer imagine the shipment of private or even state college tuition on my parents. Loans never go away so just be smart with your money and borrow less. When growing up teachers, parents, and counselers have always drilled college into your head but did they ever explain why?If asked it was to get a better job or to give your self a better furture than what they have. But maybe college isnt always about learning but its about finding your self. College is not only about learning how to earn a living, .. , but also about learing how to live how to be an informed and bear on citizen, how to communicate effectively, how to understand other cultures and peoples, how to think and reflect (Ch 14 enterprisingness statement). Most people seem to overlook these simple things. College might have the large goal of getting that diploma but its about the experience.You are not only sitting in a partitionroom but you are figuring out new ways to do the things you love. Not only can you make life long friends but you can learn different backgrounds, try new things, and take any class imaginable. College may seem like a lot of work in the big picture but you can make it fun and worth the experience. Overall College might seem like a lot of work, stress, and debt but it is something that you should enjoy. Not only for the sake of saying I went to college but for bettering 4 yourself. You can come out with so much more life skills just from competing this life step.Every ones ecperience is going to be different, but you are only bettering your self in the end. 5 Works Cited Birkenstein, Cathy, and Russel Durst. Chapter 14 Introduction Is higher(prenominal) Education Worth the Price? They Say, I Say The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. By Gerald Graff. se cond ed. N. p. W. W. Norton &, 2012. 256-73. Print. Wilson, Robin. A Lifetime of Student Debt, Not Likey. They Say, I Say The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing. 2nd ed. N. p. W. W. Norton &, 2012. 256-73. Print

Essay about George Orwell Essay

Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. George Orwell re-uses almost of his themes in order to get his point across. In Why I Write, Orwell states that one of the reasons he writes is for policy-making purpose. He expresses this theme in his essays, An Episode of Bed-wetting and St. Cyprians, as well as his novels, 1984 and tool leaven.In An Episode of Bed-wetting and St. Cyprians, Orwell expresses how he feels just about the politics in the school, St. Cyprians. While attending St. Cyprians Orwell and many of the other boys who were not rich, were treated unfairly. Sambo, the headmaster, and impudent, his wife, al bearings seemed to look take upon the boys who were not rich and did not have titles. Orwell even tells the reader, The rich boys had milk and biscuits in the middle of the morning, they were given riding lessons once a week, Flip mothered then and called them by their Christian names, and above all they were never trans cribed (Atwan 166). In An Episode of Bed-wetting, Orwell mentions the Sixth Form.It was a group at school made up of older boys who were selected as having character and were authorize to beat smaller boys (Atwan 16). It was made clear by Orwell that this tradition was a bit strange. But after his succor beating he claimed, the second beating seemed to me a just and reasonable punishment (Atwan 18). Orwell is trying to solve the reader understand that the administration at St. Cyprians has vitiate the boys by making them return that the Sixth Form is an appropriate way of handling matters.Orwell states in Why I Write, that he is against dictatorship and for democratic socialism (Atwan 418). George Orwell published 1984 in 1949, the same year that the Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb. The arms race that followed the Soviets emergence of nuclear weaponry quickly escalated into the Cold War, which raged for the next four decades as the enormous ideological gulf separa ting capitalism and democracy from totalitarianism and collectivism led to mutual hatred between the United States and the Soviet Union, the worldly concerns most forefingerful nations. Also, many of the methods that the companionship in 1984 uses to convey its absolute power, such as the rewriting of history and the use of semipolitical icons, were actually employed in Communist nations around the world. Big fellow is similar to Lenin in the Soviet Union and Mao in China. In 1984, Orwell portrays the perfect totalitarian society, the most extreme realization imaginable of a modern-day government with absolute power.The title of the novel was meant to indicate to its readers in 1949 that the story represented a real possibility for the near forthcoming if totalitarianism were not opposed, the title suggested, some variation of the world exposit in the novel could become a reality in simply thirty-five years. Orwell portrays a state in which government monitors and cont rols every candidate of human life to the extent that even having a disloyal musical theme is against the law. In 1984 Orwell writes, Who controls the past controls the future. Who controls the present controls the past (Orwell 63). The Party has complete political power in the present, enabling it to control the way in which its subjects think about and interpret the past every history book reflects Party ideology, and individuals are forbidden from keeping mementos of their own pasts, such as photographs and documents. As a result, the citizens of Oceania have a very short, fuzzy memory, and are unstrained to believe anything that the Party tells them.Animal Farm, by George Orwell, is said to be most famous in the West as a lancinate critique of the history and rhetoric of the Russian Revolution. Retelling the story of the emergence and knowledge of Soviet communism in the form of an animal fable, Animal Farm allegorizes the rise to power of the dictator Joseph Stalin. Althou gh Orwell believed strongly in socialist ideals, he felt that the Soviet Union realized these ideals in a abysmally perverse form. His novel creates its most powerful ironies in the moments in which Orwell depicts the decadence of Animalist ideals by those in power. Even though Animal Farm serves not so much to condemn tyranny or despotism as to indict the horrifying hypocrisy of tyrannies that base themselves on, and owe their initial power to, ideologies of liberation and equality.The gradual disintegration and perversion of the Seven Commandments illustrates this hypocrisy with brainy force. In Animal Farm, Orwell writes, All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others (Orwell 112). In this statement, the rulers (the pigs), are re-writing laws to enlighten things esteem them. Also, many people will misread the word equal in the first part as a relative term alternatively than an absolute one. Once a misreading like this takes place, the core ideals of the animal farm, and any human nation, gradually become corrupted.Orwell uses polemics in order to make his reader think his views are correct. Politics are extremely all important(predicate) to George Orwell, which is why he always seems to write about it.Works CitedAtwan, Robert. ten-spot on Ten. Bedford Books of St. Martins Press Boston, 1992Orwell, George. 1984. Harcourt Brace Javanovich, Inc. London, 1949Orwell, George. Animal Farm A Fairy Story. Harcourt Brace & Company London, 1946

A Brief History of Turkish Cinema

The Turkish picture traced its beginnings from a private point in Paris on December 22, 1895 at the Grand Caf by French brothers, Louis and Auguste Lumiere. Similar such shows came to Turkey at the Sultans Court, Yildz Palace and other public ones like that of Sigmund Weinberg at the Sponecks Beerho handling in Galatasarays Square.In 1914, The Destruction of the Russian Monument at Avastefonas is acknowledged to be the first ever Turkish movie house. This was a 150 meter hanker documentary by Fuat Uzkinav, an army officer.The film The Marriage of Master Himmet was began in 1914 but took long to finish because the actors served in the war of the Dardanelles. It was finally realised in 1918, when Uzkinav took over from Weinberg, who first worked on the project. Several other films, generally on World War I were shot. In 1922 the first film company was formed. Muhsin Ertugrul, a theater artist switched to film direction.He made a total of 30 films in the entire stretch of his cine matic career. His all-important(prenominal) works included the 1923 Shirt of Fire which was about the war for independence, asterisked by the first female artist, the 1931 The Streets in Istanbul, the first film to use a soundtrack, and A Nation Awakes in 1932.The influence of theater brush off be seen in his films. Muhsin became a very important figure of the cinema industry. In the 1950s cinema took its own form. Lutfu Akad led the pack of virgin directors. The theme of most films of the era was societal problems. In the 1960s the sexual climax of picture had disadvantageous effects on cinema. Cinematic films during the period dealt with the complaisant and economic themes. In the 1980s the aver supported the cinema industry. Turkish films earned international recognition. These films were on social and psychological subjects as tumesce as womens rights. The films in the 1990s were fewer but they were of ace quality than before due to advances in technology, training avai lable, international awards and state support. Theaters and big cinemas emerge, visual aspects were given focus, and outdoor theaters grew.For a while television and videos took the attention away from cinemas, but foreign films from Europe and the US substituted for the deficiency of local films. The current status of Turkish cinema strikes a labyrinthine sense with the states support of the European Cinema Union and Turkish partnerships with foreign ventures. There is also a noted growth in the number of movie theaters as well as in the commanding developments and changes in theater as well.BibliographyTurkish Cinema History. (2005). Republic of Turkey Ministry of husbandry and Tourism Internet Available from http//www.kutur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGostner.aspx Accessed 17 November 2008 

Blue Cross

When several Blue Cross Blue Shield programs in upstate New York merged, each organization brought its own business handlees and IT dodgings to the new entity. Because they were so different, yet had to be consolidated, the new entity, Excellus Blue Cross Blue Shield, valued to first implement a strong business analysis process to clearly identify order functions and processes. They wanted to be able to catalogue and visualize their current state architecture in support of system modernization and SOA efforts.Problem Excellus Blue Cross Blue Shield is protrude of a $4 billion family of companies that finances and delivers health care work across upstate New York, including the major cities of Syracuse, Elmira, Rochester, Utica, and Buffalo. As New York acress largest nonprofit health plan, the organization provides health insurance to more than than 2 million people, and employs more than 6,000 New Yorkers. It is the result of a nuclear fusion reaction of several health org anizations answer upstate New York.Following the merger, Excellus institute that there were few enterprise architecture (EA) standards embraced by all of the previously independent entities. The company formed a group within the IT segment to focus on EA as it consolidated business and IT systems and reduced the descend of technical diversity within the organization. With multiple platforms and environments, it was extremely challenging to bring in smoothly running, cohesive business procedures, without a clear understanding of what processes and systems were serving each organization.Many of these legacy systems, some in place for 30+ years, didnt have adequate documentation, so there were parts of the systems that were on the whole unknown. Before making sweeping policy or platform decisions, we recognise the importance of identifying all company functions and the processes used to implement them, explained Eric Stephens, enterprise architect, attempt Architecture and Inte gration Team at Excellus. This was the first step in our effort to reduce duplicate processes that were a normal result of the merger.We had to create single systems for claims processing, provider contracting, member registration, and more, but could not do that until we to the full understood and mapped the existing processes. Excellus recognized that a key success figure would be a service-oriented architecture (SOA) approach, offering the ability to devise waxy architectures that rely on smaller parts (services), rather than larger large solutions. Being able to implement the architecture in parts gives the company more choices (buy vs. uild) and allows for variation in particular components to adapt to a switch market demand for products.It was clear that going forward with big systems implementations would causal agent both risks and financial resources to unacceptable levels. In addition, the organization established a goal of standardizing practices so that customers and others outside the organization would feel like they were relations with a single company, rather than multiple entities in a tolerant federation.

Curriculum Development and Design Essay

These programs arose from the thinking of a sort out of pi maviners who believed that the educational progression that had been developed by medical trial education innovators at McMaster University was in like mien most relevant for the preparation of occupational therapists and physiotherapists. Consequently, a congregation of educators from two institutions, mohawk College and McMaster University, combined their skills and created a vision that became the diploma programs in occupational therapy and physical therapy.This asc decease was problem- ground erudi ten-spotess, and was utilise as the foundation for both programs from their inception to the present day, crosswise three opposite iterations of broadcast. One of the cardinal innovations to the way in which the college programs were taught was the combining of using susceptibility from both the university and college to teach all courses. In the 1980s, a degree completion program was launched that provided g rades of the diploma program a pretend to upgrade their qualification to a bachelors degree from McMaster University.This was concomitantly beta since the nominal credential for entry to hold had been raised to the baccalaureate level by the professional associations. In 1989, the program moved completely into the university setting and the downs were granted a BHSc(PT) or BHSc(OT), a bachelor degree in rise upness sciences. Ten course of instructions later, in 2000, apprisedidates were admitted to the entrylevel know programs in occupational therapy and physiotherapy. The pedagogical Framework Problem-based instructionAs briefly referred to above, the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs at McMaster University buzz off a vehement tarradiddle with and legacy of problem-based encyclopedism. eyepatch the initial course of instruction prototypes were watertightly influenced by the inaugural undergraduate medical plan, meter and confidence presented o pport mixer unities to create our own assumes. These models reflect the special nuances of each discipline. Problem-based teaching is recognized as having begun at McMaster University, in the medical platform, and was in resolution to tiny concerns about the nature of more(prenominal) than traditional nurture models in medical curricula.The intention was to create an approach to teaching and acquire that was apprentice-centered, tho based upon distinctly up objectives and rating criteria. The see difference was the expectation that assimilators would be facilitated and calculated rather than taught (Barrows and Tamblyn 1980 Neufeld 1983 Saarinen and Salvatori 1994). some(prenominal) the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs at McMaster University take a shit embraced these ideas, although with differing degrees of connection and committedness to the original model.In fact, true problem-based learnedness models should of course emerge from each indiv idual context and culture. T present is no rightfulness way although there is a growing recognition of a rough-cut set of principles and elements that fanny be applied to pay back the problembased-ness of a schooling environment (Maudesley 1994 Walton and Matthews 1989). Problem-based learning principles tend to become grouped in devil distinct categories stolon, the values upon which problem-based learning is based and second, some characteristics that atomic number 18 held in special K apprehension as cosmos critical to the core of problem-based learning. rudimentary values include partnership, honesty and affordness, mutual respect, and trust. Core characteristics incorporate Chapter 2 political program Development and Design 13 i Learning which is school-age child/learner-centered i Faculty roles that atomic number 18 those of facilitator and guide i Learning scenarios which wee-wee the basis, sharpen, and stimulus for learning i New info and understanding that is acquired by dint of self-directed learning (Baptiste 2003 p. 17) Consequently, there is a continuum of problem-based curricula from pure by dint of and done intercrossed models.The masters entry-level physiotherapy and occupational therapy programs at the naturalise of Rehabilitation acquisition at McMaster University continue to be based upon problem-based principles. Although both programs ar actually different one from the other, there are also m some(prenominal) an(prenominal) common elements and approaches that are celebrated. Examples of these similarities are cited passim this book, particularly in the chapters focusing on evidence-based normal and ethics education.Approaching the Task of Curriculum Re youthfulal peradventure one of the most everywherewhelming, yet exciting, tasks with which to be confronted is the opportunity and challenge of underdeveloped a forward-looking program. This task is make even more daunt when circumstances provide a chance to do something different based on external forces and not a convey to revision because something is garbled. Over the past few years, and in several years to come, umteen educational programs in rehabilitation science are facing this situation.The changing nature of the entry-level credential for occupational therapists and physiotherapists demands that talent undertake a detailed review of curricula, to determine the optimal approach to moving toward graduate-level preparation, or, at the precise least, complete a review of existing curricula models to identify their responsiveness and congruence with emerging work expectations and demands. Approaches to such a massive task sack vary from ensuring the preservation of what is good from the existing curriculum to qualification a intact shift and adopting a radically prorogue 2. 1.Principles for curricular variety and innovation Rationale should be articulated explicitly Overall goals should be reiterated constantly t hroughout the sour Continuing communication is essential, coupled with a clear precept witness that the intended swap is in reply to a defined and recognized need or purpose Ensure that the innovation is seen as a high institutional priority focussing on pedagogy and not on resources for implementation Foster laborious leadership support Identify incentives for qualification participation Gain faculty buy-in for the curricular blueprint Involve the active teaching faculty throughout the parade Anticipate potential barriers to variety show and develop strategies to address them select the potential need for and value of negotiation Adapted from Guze (1995) 14 march Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 new approach and design.To confound an optimal effect, options to be considered should be fox relevance to the pervading culture of the institution and environment at heart which the curriculum is to thrive. Also, decisions must(prenominal) be do concerning the pedagogical cho ices of how learner-centered the curriculum should be, and what particular educational modalities are the best for the circumstances. This chapter will address the entire picture of curriculum exploitation and design, from the branch conversations about how to engage in the renewal process through making decisions about methods of teaching, approaches to learner assessment, and preparation of entry-level practitioners for the emerging come contexts.Guze (1995) provided a clear and succinct discussion of several core principles that can guide curricular veer and innovation (T adequate to(p) 2. 1). The following is an oerview of these principles. Where to Begin? Motivation for curriculum renewal can come from both internal and external forces. outdoor(a) expectations from regulatory and professional bodies are tending to impose standards for new practitioners that collect i Preparation at an advanced level of clinical cogitate and judgment i The ability to assume roles that req uire autonomy and a strong sense of professional ethics i Engaging in their professional role from the first day of normal, in a conscious(p) nd moral manner that requires reflection and self-awareness Regardless of whether the motivation for curricular change stems from a desire to do something differently or better, or from outside influences, the task is one that requires careful preparation. However, it is imperative that any readiness process recognizes the need to dream and envision what could be, to create a model that will exemplify those visions, and to produce a graduate who is well brisk to face the tortuousities and challenges of emerging execute. When developing a curriculum, four general questions must be asked i What is the purpose of the curriculum? i What educational experiences can be created to fulfill this purpose? What is the most impelling manner in which to organize these educational experiences? i How can we determine that the purpose has been actio n and the goals attained (Wiers et al. 2002)? Another very critical element of any change is the recognition that the cultural context is a key in managing change successfully. Hafferty (1998), when reflecting upon the realities of a medical school curriculum, discusses the existence of informal and hidden curricula as well as the formal curriculum. He posits that, in order to father a lasting change, the entire organizational culture needs to be engaged to facilitate school-age childs and faculty alike in embracing and on the job(p) with change.When facing the task of curricular reform, redesign has to occur not notwithstanding in terms of content, but also in relation to the Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 15 educational processes that enable the learning to take place. This is the difference in the midst of reforming the syllabus and reforming the curriculum the boilers suit learning environment of the educational program and institution is changed (Burton and M cDonald 2001). Once the decision has been made to reform the curriculum, a first step is to complete an environmental plane and situational analysis that explore the educational and organizational environment within the institution, to determine what will facilitate the proposed changes. By defining a clear and fresh articulated set of riorities and guidelines, changes that are being made within the curriculum will be given the vehicle through which impact can be made upon the surrounding environment (Genn 2001). This strategy is part of the first overall phase, the training phase. This is when the need for change is established and the vision for change is designed. It is during this phase of discipline that the non-negotiable elements of structure and process are resolute. For example, within the School of Rehabilitation Science at McMaster University, both the Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy Programs were already designed as dickens-year, twenty-four-month, curricul a.Also, the province of Ontario mandates that all masters programs are two years in duration. Therefore, the decision was readily made, based on these graduate program regulations and history, that the new masters entry-level curricula would be twenty-four months long. One key commitment was clear and that was to the foundational philosophy of problem-based, selfdirected learning utilizing the application of these principles to sensitive group, heavy(a) group, and skills-based learning experiences. Wiers et al. (2002) provide a clear and helpful outline of ten general travel of curriculum design within a problem-based learning context (see Table 2. 2).While this rubric is structured around the detail processes inherent within problem-based learning development, most of the guidelines can apply broadly across any curricular development process within any pedagogical framework. From the invasion, all faculty members at McMaster University were on board regarding the need to unde rtake the development of entry-level masters curricula in both occupational therapy and physiotherapy. Both disciplines had undergone dramatic changes in the preceding two decades, bombasticly focused upon the proceeds of foundational science and evidence for coiffure. Professional practice models had emerged for both professions and provided a strong backdrop against which to create fresh ap- Table 2. 2. Ten general stairs in curriculum design for a problem-based learning (PBL) environment 1. . 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. violate rationale for the curriculum and form a planning group get general educational objectives for the curriculum Assess the educational needs of future students Apply general principles of PBL to the curriculum Structure the curriculum and generate a curriculum blueprint Elaborate the unit blueprints Construct the study units conclude on student assessment methods Consider the educational organization and curriculum management model Evaluate the curriculum and revise as inhibit Adapted from Wiers et al. (2002) 16 execute Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 proaches to the preparation of graduates for entering practice.While both the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs undertook curriculum renewal at the equal while, the physiotherapy program had engaged in an ongoing process of change across the preceding five years. Many of the issues, concerns, and changes addressed and implemented by the occupational therapy program had already been addressed by physiotherapy. Therefore, this chapter will focus predominantly upon the initiatives inherent within the curricular shift within occupational therapy, although reference will be made to processes within physiotherapy as appropriate. Designing Our New Programs Deciding upon the overarching constructs that would determine the final curriculum model was a complex and dramatic process in umpteen ways, and one in which everyone was eager to participate and obligate a chance to have in put.At the onset of the development of the occupational therapy program, three faculty retreats were held that progressed from a totally unstructured brainstorm of what would be perfect, to a detailed news report of core curricular elements in the context of a delivery structure. In the initial retreat, all full- clip faculty members in concert with some part-time members participated in a blue-skying day-long session during which everyone spoke of their dreams for the perfect curriculum. What if we could do what we precious? What if we did not have to be concerned with logistics like room bookings? and so on. This exercise provided us with a high-level ppreciation of the values and elements that were important to us as a collective. It was from this beginning fantasy that the next level of planning emerged. The second retreat was more structured and focused upon the creation of a continuum for learning that resulted in the overarching framework for the curriculum, together with the delivery methods. A process was followed whereby we decided upon a central construct around which the whole curriculum would evolve, namely, occupation. To support this core notion, there were several longitudinal abstract threads that represented continua of thought such as wellness to illness, comfort to complexity, local to global, and unifaceted to multifaceted. done this process, we were able to identify the starting place for the first study term, and to create a high-level framework for the progression of the total curriculum (see Table 2. 3) In physiotherapy, the process began similarly with a faculty retreat however, the focus varied more or less. Initial discussions place elements of the curriculum that we Table 2. 3. Occupational therapy curricular framework Term 1 2 3 4 5 6 study theme Wellness, health, and occupation Person, environment, and occupation Development, disability, and occupation Youth and the development of self Adulthood and disability Complexitie s of coetaneous practice Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 17 alued and precious to main(prenominal)tain and those needing less emphasis. Through ongoing curricular evaluation and feedback, we identify new areas that needed to be included in the emerging curriculum and other areas that needed to be intensify. These areas were discussed within the context of the changing practice of physiotherapy and the intimacy and skills required by the physiotherapist in the new millennium. The decision was made to use a curricular framework that merged a modified body systems design, as current physiotherapy practice and clinical specialties were aligned with this model. Inclusion of a confederacy expend/Community Health unit allowed or a focus on emerging health care roles in the community and on integrating health promotion and disease prevention into practice. The faculty recognized that while many physiotherapists identified their practice in an area related to the body syst ems, increasingly clinicians were faced with more complex patients with multiple system involvement. Hence, the final unit of study focused on unifyd practice dealing with clients with complex multisystem health care problems. chase the initial planning process, it is now time to initiate the plan. It is during this time period that the unfreezing of old organizational patterns and the introduction of innovations into the educational environment take place (Burton and McDonald 2001).Often, while there is a strong commitment to engaging in the conversations that lead to the design of a changed frankness, it is a very different matter to start doing and actually making that changed reality come to manner. A cooperative internal environment is essential for the identification of that initial dream and therefore it is well worthwhile for planners to engage in a transparent and collaborative experience that enables maximum participation and open debate. A process of this nature is c haracterized by collaborative problem solving, effective communication, abilities in conflict resolution, and a cultural expectation of working together in harmony that guides the overall enterprise (Burton and McDonald 2001).Therefore, it is of importance to determine at the onset the values and behaviors by which the development experience will be approached to set up structures and processes that will ensure that the best attempts at making it so will be expended. During the initiation period, we experienced intense evoke and levels of emotion from all participants regarding the manner in which the planning and the visions for the two disciplines would be evolved and realized. As mentioned previously, we had determined that the existing problem-based learning principles would remain but that the key changes would be realized through the manner in which the content was introduced to the students and through which the continuum of learning would evolve. Similarly, we were committ ed to maintaining a student-centered approach.One core difference was to be the manner in which the experiential component of professional preparation would be integrated more centrally into both curricula. Previously, the curricula were designed in a more traditional fashion whereby the clinical fieldwork experiences were placed at the end of each study term and were linked directly to the area of pedantic focus for the preceding learning block. By definition, once the overarching concepts of the curricula were determined to be different from the previous models, then fieldwork placements would become less strictly aligned. This was beef up more heavily in the occupational therapy program which was originally designed around developmental stages and central practice populations. savants would face a more eclectic approach in their clinical learning therefore, both programs determined that learning around professional issues and practice expectations should be interwoven through t he longitudinal axis of the curriculum. 18 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon Redevelopment Within a Problem-based Learning Culture 2 As with any problem-based learning system, the depleted group learning unit is the nucleus of the whole curriculum. However, the success of problem-based, small group learning is supported by the strategic use of large group interactions for the imparting of theoretical and expert knowledge, while still maintaining a problem-based learning philosophy.Similarly, the application of problem-based learning principles is a critical piece of man-to-man learning and synthesis of knowledge and information throughout the academic and clinical components of the curriculum overall. Both the physiotherapy and occupational therapy programs elected to continue to utilize problem-based learning methods in a manner that celebrated the development already strived over twenty-five years of curriculum development. This has evolved over time very differently in each progra m. For example, during the planning process for the occupational therapy curriculum, efforts were made to define new models for tutoring and many were identified and put into place. During the second year of the occupational therapy program, the problem-based tutorials occur only once each week.This allows additional scheduling time for including the evidence-based practice courses and is also in response to the difficulties many practitioners are experiencing in gaining release time from employers to participate as tutors. In this new tutorial model, tutors are required to participate in only one weekly session with two or three tutors meetings across the term kinda of weekly. Application of problem-based learning principles in large groups has been maintained and, in fact, enhanced particularly in the clinical skills sessions. Students often are placed in small groups (different groups from their core tutorial group) and provided with opportunities to explore assessment tools an d intervention methods.Through these group experiences, the students apply a problem-based learning approach to the identification of learning issues, the uncovering of essential information and resources, and the synthesis of their understanding of the tool or technique. Integration of Experiential Practice Preparation Within a Problem-based Learning Framework As mentioned earlier, both the physiotherapy and occupational therapy faculty groups were committed to ensuring the desegregation of academic and experiential learning into the curricula from the beginning, and were focused on developing innovative models for the synthesis of practice preparation into the core academic units.It is important to note that the work related to integration commenced at the very onset of the curriculum planning process. In the case of the occupational therapy program, there had ever been sessions held throughout the full curriculum that provided opportunities for the Clinical Placement Coordinato r (now Professional Practice Coordinator) to inform, advise, educate, and monitor students in preparing for their practice experiences and in checking in with them following these experiences. However, a greater focus on such integration was placed within the masters entry-level curriculum model in order to ensure that students were being prepared to meet the enhanced expectations of a graduate program. Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 19Evaluation Within a ammonia alum Problem-based Learning Framework There should be clear and close linkages between how students learn and how that learning is assessed. Therefore, some information will be presented here relative to the evaluation methods developed at McMaster University in the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs. Student Evaluation. In the preceding years, the two programs at McMaster University had been very complex in designing evaluation/student assessment tools that reflected the principles of problem-ba sed learning and provided students with opportunities to integrate their academic learning with their growing professional awareness and identity.Most of these tools are built around the raw material problem-based learning process of exploring a learning scenario that has been developed to address the objectives for the particular learning unit. Essentially, problem-based evaluation needs to be congruent with the underlying values and principles of problem-based learning. Traditional methods of assessing students knowledge tend to be contradictory to these principles and therefore should not be applied out of context. Problem-based learner assessment should i Be congruent with the underlying problem-based learning process illustrated by the development of learning scenarios based on real life practice situations i Mirror the problem-based learning process of reflecting on a practice scenario, efining learning issues, researching, synthesizing, and synopsizing the learning with appl ication to the defined case i Involve personal reflection and enhanced awareness of individual critical think- ing and clinical reason out skills Faculty Evaluation. As with student assessment, the evaluation of faculty is central to the maintenance and enhancement of a problem-based learning culture. And, similarly, faculty evaluation is built into the roles played in any given learning context. In the case of the small group tutor role, faculty members are valuated by each student and provide a self-evaluation to students during the course of the group process.Following the completion of the small group experience, students evaluate the faculty member as well as the overall course, and these ratings are provided to faculty and placed in their file for attention at times when promotion, tenure, and merit increase decisions are made. For those faculty members, practitioners, and others who facilitate large group sessions in both guess and practical skills, similar evaluations are completed. This process has been in place over many years and has not changed since the advent of the new curricula. However, the items being evaluated have altered to reflect the expected level and scope of graduate teaching. Student Self-assessment Development of the OTPPI. Students admitted into the occupational therapy program are not expected to have any prerequisite courses completed during their undergraduate education. This has been the case from the very beginning.In the program itself, there are no formal courses that provide students with basic knowledge related to the foundational sciences that underlie occupational therapy practice such as anatomy, physics, biochemistry, sociology, psychology, and anthropology. It has been the long-held belief that in a pure problem-based learning 20 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 environment, the learning is accomplished through the horizontal meshing of several(a) areas of knowledge and information that through the integration of these sciences and bodies of knowledge, students can gain the understanding they require by using real life situations as springboards for integration and synthesis of all inputs.Consequently, recent efforts were expended to develop the Occupational Therapy Personal attainment Inventory (OTPPI), a tool that was developed from the experience of the undergraduate medical program over the past few years (Blake et al. 1996 Cunnington 2001). The OTPPI focuses on foundational knowledge that our students need in order to become practicing occupational therapists. It is not a test of the application of that knowledge in practice. The examination consists of 90 multiple-choice questions developed with the expectation that a star student would be able to answer by the time of graduation. There are three main domains included in each examination biology (this includes anatomy, physiology, etc. ), social sciences (this includes psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. ), and research (this i ncludes statistics, research methods, ethics, etc. ).The breakdown of each examination is 40 part biology, 40 percent social science, and 20 percent research. The examination is generated each term and students in both years have the same examination, with the expectation that the students in second year will achieve a higher result than those in the first year. Students receive a detailed report with their scores and a profile of how they have progressed over time. They are provided with information about their total score as well as a breakdown on each of the three domains. They also receive a zone score, which is an indication of how well they have performed on the test in comparison to the other members of the class.Students in the yellow or red zones may want to review their scores in more detail and make learning plans to address gaps that may have been identified through the examination. This tool is designed as a self-assessment measure, the individual results of which are known only to each student. We have made a conscious choice that results are not used in the summative evaluation of the students, and are intended to provide the learners with a sense of how they are progressing in accumulating knowledge relative to the basic sciences of their discipline. The students are expected to use that information to set plans in place to address weaknesses (e. g. , through problem-based tutorials, individual assignments, etc. ).The OTPPI has been a pencil and paper test so far, but steps are being taken to convert it to a web-based format. While the occupational therapy program has undertaken this initiative on a pilot basis, initial responses would manoeuvre that students are finding the process helpful to them, although this is very new at the time of publication. Integration of Evidence-based Practice Skills into the Curricula. The integration of skills related to practicing in an evidence-based manner is seen to be critical to both programs. A detailed description of the models pick out by the occupational therapy and physiotherapy programs is found in Chapter 5. In both programs, there is a strong commitment to evidence-based practice as a central onstruct for the curriculum and a natural partner for client-centered and problem-based principles. Conclusion Since their inception, the masters entry-level programs in occupational therapy and physiotherapy have presented opportunities to revisit our history and legacy in health sciences education. In order to reflect on the overall process, the general steps for curriculum design offered by Wiers et al. (2002) will be revisited (see Table 2. 2). Chapter 2 Curriculum Development and Design 21 For us, the rationale for the curriculum was clear both from an internal and an external perspective, and the notion of forming a planning group was a natural approach to the task.Our profound commitment to involving our broad academic community was illustrated through the involvement of a com modious range of individuals encompassing full-time, part-time, and sessional faculty members as well as members of the wider practice community. Such involvement was realized throughout the planning process and continues through such individuals representation on our Education, Curriculum and Admissions committees. The need to define clear general educational objectives for the curriculum was also recognized at a very early stage. We found that being able to determine the goals and directions from the start-off served to facilitate the planning that followed. Assessing the educational needs of future students was assisted by our own knowledge concerning the entry-level competencies demanded by our professional regulatory colleges.Also, the connections we have with our practice communities and past graduates were invaluable in providing a background for determining the shifts required within the curriculum to fulfill practice expectations. Similarly, the same thoughtful reasoning was used to consider the differences of teaching and learning between undergraduate and graduate approaches to education. Applying general principles of problem-based learning to the curriculum was not a concern for us, given our long history of internalizing this philosophy. Specific difficulties arose when converting the undergraduate courses and assessment tools to the needs of a graduate program.Nevertheless, problem-based learning in many ways is a invest for this transition since it resembles closely the natural proclivities of graduate work smaller groups, self-directedness, learner autonomy, and a degree of freedom to determine learning directions. Structuring the curriculum and creating a blueprint became different experiences for physiotherapy and occupational therapy. As mentioned previously, while the planning processes looked ostensibly similar, the manner in which the final curricular models were derived was very different (see Tables 2. 3 and 2. 4). However, after t he master models were created, the processes for elaborating the blueprints and constructing study units were again very similar.Methods of student assessment tended to remain grounded in the familiar processes and tools that we had developed across our history with problem-based learning. However, as each curricular element emerged throughout the planning (e. g. , evidence-based practice, ethics, clinical skills, fieldwork) so did innovative ways to enhance the student assessment processes that were already strong. Details of these innovations will be discussed in the book chapters relating to these specific areas. rumination of the educational organization and curriculum management model required particular attention since our lines of accountability had shifted, with the Table 2. 4.Physiotherapy curricular framework unit of measurement 1 2 3 4 5 6 Content theme Fundamentals of physiotherapy practice Fundamentals of musculoskeletal practice Fundamentals of cardiorespiratory and neurological practice Advanced neurological practice Community practice Integrated practice and professional transition 22 Sue Baptiste, Patricia Solomon 2 move to the School of Graduate Studies. Two slightly different models of governance emerged, with the Admissions Committee being the only shared group between physiotherapy and occupational therapy. However, both governance models reflect a central group responsible and accountable for curriculum and another group that oversees general program functioning. Curricular evaluation remains an ongoing office and expectation.Chapter 13 provides a particular model for curriculum evaluation that was used by the occupational therapy program, the Program Logic Model. However, there are many ways in which faculty members can retain a clear image of what makes up a curriculum and what indicators are critical to evaluate for the success of the program overall. The three years of planning and launching the new curricula at McMaster University were years of extremely hard work, high energy and output. As we see each student cohort graduate, and receive feedback concerning our students and graduates in practice settings, we feel heartened that we appear to be on the right track. We know, however, that curriculum development is an ongoing process.