Romantic Era Poets Lord Byron - 777 Words

In this essay I am going to elaborate on how Lord Byron can be seen as one of the major Romantic poets of the Romantic era. Lord Byron was not only one of the leading Romantics in the Romantic era but he also a revered politician. He made a great literary contribution to the romantic era through poems, stories and the â€Å"Byronic Hero†. His work and life were adventurous. This only aided him in creating his literary pieces. Lord George Gordon Noel Byron (1788-1824), better known as Lord Byron, was born, with a clubbed right foot, in 1788 on 22 January and passed on in 1824, the son of Catherine Gordon of Gight, an poor Scots heiress, and Captain John Mad Jack Byron. According to the website â€Å"Poetry Foundation† he was â€Å"the most flamboyant and notorious of the major Romantics†. He is crowned this title because of his adventurous nature and lifestyle; his views on life and of course his contribution towards the Romantic era literature. Even though his writing style was quite classical, he would become one of the great figures of British Romanticism together with William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Shelley and John Keats. Lord Byron lived during the Romantic era in literature which originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century, approximately from 1800 to 1850. The characteristics of Romantic poetry are that it emphasizes feeling, intuition and imagination to a point of good reason. Among the aspects of the Romantic Movement in England may be listed:Show MoreRelatedWhen We Two Parted1428 Words   |  6 Pagesall in this room is perhaps the feeling George Gordon Byron was reflection upon when he wrote one of the most honest pieces of modern literature, which is typical of the Romantic Era, â€Å"When We Two Parted†. Defined as an era which caused great revolt against aristocratic and social reforms, poetry of the Romantic period delved into themes relating to the â€Å"aesthetics of lifeâ⠂¬ . German painter Caspar David Friedreich brilliantly simplified an era which great scholars to this day debate its definitionRead MoreLord Byron Essay978 Words   |  4 Pageson his or her poetry and later works to come? Many influences in a poets life are associated to the era that he or she was raised in. In the Romantic Era, Lord Byron applied his influences of different themes and images to his work as they stood out in his life. Lord Byron uses the theme of life and death frequently in many of his poems to show the importance of these themes in the Romantic Era. The meaning of life in Byrons work is based on how he views his own life, and depicts it as lightRead MoreWilliam Wordsworth And Lord Byron1102 Words   |  5 PagesWordsworth and Lord Byron sought to change the poetry of the era by enriching it with emotion. William Wordsworth, known for his poem,  ¨Tintern Abbey ¨ elucidates a feeling of solitude throughout, as he relates to the nature around him. Contrary to Wordsworth ´s work, Lord Byron creates a harsh tone by explaining the insignificance of mankind in his poem,  ¨Apostrophe to the Ocean ¨. Wordsworth ´s poem  ¨Tintern Abbey ¨ exemplifies Romantic philosophy with a stronger connotation than Lord Byron s  ¨ApostropheRead MoreAnalysis : She Walks In Beauty By Lord Byron1207 Words   |  5 Pagesreader to decide. Poems can have many different meanings other than what the autho r initially made it out to be. In the poem â€Å"She Walks in Beauty† written by Lord Byron reveals his admiration for a woman by using a symbol, diction, tone, and mood. In order to comprehend Lord Byron’s poem betters, one must understand his background. George Gordon Byron was born on January 22, 1788 to a schizophrenic mother. His father had abandoned him and Byron’s nurse had been abusive toward him. This led to a lack ofRead MoreExploration of Romanticism in Poetry Essay967 Words   |  4 Pagesfrom the Romans. This era started in 1780AD. Previous to this period of time, there was an era of science and fact. This was known as the era of enlightenment. This is the purpose of the romantic era, which still exists today. It was to acquire an escape from the science and realistic way of life. There are many different well known poets of this era. For example there is John Keats, William Blake, William Wordsworth and many more. These poets all had romanticism exposedRead MoreUnderstanding Lord Byron The Romantic Period1386 Words   |  6 PagesStephanie Zavala Mrs. Krudwig English 12 3 March 2017 Understanding Lord Byron The Romantic Period was a time where life changed for so many. At the time, nations were experiencing the results of the Industrial Revolution. â€Å"England was the first nation in the world to experience the effects of the Industrial Revolution† (Henry 527). Instead of products being made by hand, they were being made now by machines. Homes of people were being used for industries. The people most affected wereRead MoreHow The Ideal Love Is Unattainable1373 Words   |  6 PagesKnown as one of the greatest British poets, George Noel Gordon Byron, more commonly known as Lord Byron, became popular for his use of the English language and showing his romantic lifestyle. With his astounding use of writing, he goes down in history as a leader in the Romantic movement. Not only did he exemplify an important role model during this era of writing, but considered the most notorious and flamboyant poet from 1785 until 1830, when the Romantic Movement ended. Many of his poems published Read MoreRomantic Imagery And The Romantic Era965 Words   |  4 PagesDuring the Romantic period, a plethora of poets, authors, and thinkers used their visions and beliefs to try to persuade others to view life in a more individualistic style instead of following societal norms. George Byron, better known as Lord Byron, wrote all of his poems with an incredible amount of passion, similar to others in the Romantic era. His works stressed individuality and self-expression. His work â€Å"She Walks in Beauty† is no different and serves as a glimpse into the Romantic era. In thisRead MoreLord Byron and the Romantic Period Essay1829 Words   |  8 PagesLord Byron’s works, such as Don Juan and other poems reflect not only the suave and charming characteristics of the Romantic Period, but they also reveal the nature of Byron’s uncommitted and scandalous life. Byron, like most Romantic era authors, was very unpredictable and opinionated in all of his writings. Fr om the hatred of his upbringing, to the love of adventure, and also to the love of meaningless relationships with various women were majorly influenced and illustrated through all of hisRead MorePoetry Is The Expression Of A Strong Feeling Of Emotions1337 Words   |  6 Pagesphase as the Romantic era. Romantic poets, tired of the exploitation of the oppressed and the power of the oppressor, felt the need to rebel against social norms. Those poets believed that more focus should be placed on who a person was, and not what their society expects them to become. Such poets like George Gordon, also known as Lord Byron, and Percy Bysshe Shelley, thrived off of ideas that allowed them to explore new boundaries in poetry and challenge what was expected of them as poets. Instead

Essay Food Products and Biotechnology - 1636 Words

Food Products and Biotechnology INTRODUCTION This paper is about Biotechnology and its use in creating new food products. In researching this paper, I found there is a lot of information on this subject and a lot of debate on the creation of genetically altered food, medicine, crops, and more. I decided to do my paper on the genetically altered food part of the subject. I will discuss what biotechnology is, who is for it and who is against it, and what some of the ethical concerns are when it comes to growing genetically modified (GM) crops. THE FOOD BIOTECHNOLOGY DEBATE WHAT IS BIOTECHNOLOGY? Biotechnology is a broad term that applies to all living organisms. It is used for everything from microorganisms used to ferment beer†¦show more content†¦They can change one characteristic or a few characteristics at a time with current technology. This enables them to release, for use, the modified seeds one step at a time instead of spending years to develop the best tasting and hardiest plants all at once. It takes 10 -- 12 years to breed plants in the traditional way. With biotechnology, breeders can select the exact traits they are looking for and mix them together enabling them to get the plants they want in only 1 - 2 years. Crops that are currently produced in the U.S. through biotechnology are soybeans, corn, canola, tomatoes, squash, and potatoes. These crops are suppose to be improved versions of the traditional ones with added beneficial traits. RISKS Some of the risks, to humans, that scientists have identif ied are new allergens in the food supply, antibiotic resistance, a concentration of toxic metals, and enhancement of the environment for toxic fungi. NEW ALLERGENS New allergens could cause problems for people that are sensitive to certain things and do not know that they are now part of something else that they were not allergic to. For example if they put certain milk proteins into carrots, parents would know not to give children allergic to milk the milk but they would not think twice about giving them the transgenic carrots that now contain milk proteins. A study done at the University of Nebraska showed that soybeans that were genetically engineered to contain proteins fromShow MoreRelatedCurrent Status and Applications of Biotechnology in the Malaysian Food Industry.1517 Words   |  7 PagesTOPIC: CURRENT STATUS AND APPLICATIONS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY IN THE MALAYSIAN FOOD INDUSTRY. The term â€Å"biotechnology† refers to the use of living organisms or their products to modify human health and the human environment. ‘Food biotechnology’ is a process scientists use to enhance the production, nutritional value, safety, and taste of foods. It can also benefit the environment by improving crops so that they need fewer pesticides. Modern food biotechnology is a refined version of this same processRead MoreDevelopment And Growth Of The Global Agricultural Biotechnology Industry1171 Words   |  5 PagesDemand for food manufacture has grown owing to large population resulting in the requirement of more food to fulfill the food needs of the worlds people. This is a critical factor contributing towards the market growth. A Large proportion of ongoing research development in this field of as is done in the areas of Africa and Asia Pacific This is projected to offer more business opportunities and growth prospects for the industry participants in the global agricultural biotechnology market. ButRead MoreEssay about Three Reasons Why Biotechnology Should be Pursued1736 Words   |  7 PagesThree Reasons Why Biotechnology Should be Persuade Today in the twenty-first century, technology, a practical act of applying that what came from science is spreading out in our everyday lives for the purpose of stabilizing problems in the world and also to make our life much easier. Now, companies are focused on their position in society and worldwide competition. As they become more effective in production, they keep improving their products. Improved production results from technology progressionRead MoreBiotechnology : Genetically Modified Organisms928 Words   |  4 PagesBiotechnology refers to technology in biology. Biotechnology modifies DNA or the genetic material of an organism to achieve a desired trait. GMOs are genetically modified organisms. This is when a person directly engineers the DNA. For example, food crops have been genetically modified by humans using conventional cultivation and propagation techniques. Biotechnology offers many health benefits and risks. Biotechnology can help with food production by helpin g plants become less vulnerable to droughtRead MoreSocial and Ethical Technology Concerns-Biotechnology723 Words   |  3 PagesTechnology Concerns-Biotechnology Biotechnology is technology based on living organisms. It harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop technologies or products which are immensely useful to mankind. Biotechnology modifies living organisms according to our needs. Humans have employed this tool in the fields of agriculture, food industry and medicine for more than 6000 years. We see numerous biotechnological applications in our every-day life. Preparation of food products like bread, cheeseRead MoreThe Uses of Biotechnology Essay682 Words   |  3 PagesThe Uses of Biotechnology The scientific rules of genetics were not known until the nineteenth century, when Gregor Mendel determined from his study of plants that particles that can not be seen carry traits that are passed on from generation to generation. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick made the makeup of the genetic code called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, the genetic material that is in all living cells. Deoxyribonucleic acid encodes the order of amino acids that have peptides andRead MoreBiotechnology : Genetically Modified Organisms959 Words   |  4 PagesBiotechnology refers to using technology in biology. Some of the terms in biotechnology need to be defined here, because the public perception and regulations differ depending on what type of biotechnology is used. Biotechnology includes modifying the DNA or the genetic material of an organism to achieve a desired trait. Selective breeding is when two varieties of the same species are combined to produce a desired trait: for example, fo od crops have been genetically modified by humans for yearsRead MoreThe Controversy Surrounding Genetically Engineered Foods And The Use Of Biotechnology823 Words   |  4 PagesFood Biotechnology There is much controversy surrounding genetically engineered (GE) foods and the use of biotechnology. However, they offer many scientifically proven advantages that could have a dramatic impact on world hunger and our environment in the near future. At the same time, the public is asking many good questions and raising concerns about what long term negative effects genetically engineered foods may have on the population’s health and the environment. Never the less, based on theRead MoreEssay about Rogerian Argument of Genetic Engineered Foods1161 Words   |  5 PagesGenetically Modified Food â€Å"Biotechnology has been used for more than 6,000 years for lots of interesting and practical purposes: making food such as bread and cheese, preserving dairy products and fermenting beer† (Biotechnology - Promising a Brighter Future for the World). Although we do not always realize it, biotechnology is a huge part of our everyday lives, from the medicine we use to keep us healthy, the fuel we use to take us where we need to go, and even the food we eat and the sourcesRead MoreModern Food Biotechnology, Human Health And Development : An Evidence Based Stud1561 Words   |  7 PagesModern Food Biotechnology, Human Health and Development: An Evidence-Based Stud Food security is a recurrent issue in modern society due to the continual increase in human population. Most countries have invested in scientific research in order to bridge the disparity that is existent concerning demand and supply of food (Roberts 7). This clamour for food security has enhanced the development of dynamic biotechnological procedures that not only accentuate food production but also offer an opportunity

Illiteracy free essay sample

â€Å"There’s an epidemic in America, one that is stealing the future of our nation’s children, one that is suspending millions of adults in childhood, its name, illiteracy.† – John Corcoran The National Literacy Act of 1991 defines literacy as an individuals ability to read, write and speak in English and compute and solve problems at levels of proficiency necessary to function on the job and in society, to achieve ones goals, and to develop ones knowledge and potential. Many people are illiterate not because they did not learn to read or write well enough in school, but because of uncontrollable situations. Illiteracy not only affects the one who is illiterate, it affects everyone. Illiterate people are missing out on billions of dollars each year because of their struggle in reading and writing, yet nearly half of people categorized as illiterate did not have the choice to miss out. Higher population causes an increase in poverty and poverty leads to crime, over 50 percent of criminals going into prison are illiterate. There is a lot more to illiteracy than being unable to read and write, Americans need to start paying more attention to illiteracy because the more literate the population the more advanced the world can become. Illiteracy is a worldwide epidemic. The United States ranks fifth on adult literacy skills when compared to other industrialized nations (Proliteracy). In the United States alone, four percent of adults 16 and older cannot read at all, 45.6 percent of adults are at a low reading level, leaving 19 percent of adults at a high level of reading and 31.4 percent at an average reading level. Based on adults who are lacking basic literacy skills, in the United States there are nine states that tied with the highest literacy rates: North Dakota, New Hampshire, and Minnesota at a six percent illiteracy rate, and Wisconsin, Vermont, South Dakota, N ebraska, Missouri, and Maine at an average seven percent illiteracy rate. From those nine states with lower illiteracy rates, the percentage keeps rising until California, New York, Florida, and Texas. These four states have the lowest rates of literacy in the United States. California takes last place with the highest number of illiterate people in the United States, close to one-fourth of California is lacking basic literacy skills. New York has the second highest illiteracy rate in the United States, with an average 22 percent illiterate. Florida comes third to last in the top four states with the highest levels of illiteracy an average 20 percent of the entire state is illiterate. Lastly in fourth place Texas, Texas has an estimated 19 percent illiteracy rate (National Center for Education Statistics). California, New York, Florida, and Texas all four have something in common with their high illiteracy rate; population. These four states just happen to be the four most populate d states in the country California once again taking first place, Texas taking second, New York taking third, and Florida taking fourth. All four of these states have largely influenced our country, you never see people from Idaho or Rhode Island on the Television yet their rates of literacy are noticeably higher than any of these four states. Why should America be mostly influenced by the states with the lowest levels of literacy? We should be listening to the little states more often and hearing what they have to say. There are many reasons why someone could be illiterate, but the two top reasons are actually very common problems in America: learning disabilities and poverty. With a higher population, states are bound to have more poor people and also more people with learning disabilities. Learning disablilities are a common cause of illiteracy. It can be helped, but not fixed and is not a choice in life. One learning disability that is a common cause of illiteracy is dyslexia. Dyslexia is a neurobiological disorder, also known as a nervous disorder. Dyslexia leads to the inability to decode print. Many people believe genetics, brain development, hearing problems and cross wiring in the brain are what cause this learning disability, none of which have been confirmed. Dyslexia causes a difficulty in reading, understanding, and inept writing skills because of the confusion with words that look alike. Eventually, this can cause a person to be catergorized as illiterate (Pitts). Short term memory difficulties is another neurobiological disorder that affects readers especially. Studies have shown that less skilled readers did not perform well on a variety of short term memory tasks, such as word strings or lists, doodles, and digit spans. Less skilled readers more commonly have a general laungage problem that results from inefficiencies in short term memory. Therefore, the more a person reads the more likely they will be a skilled reader and have better memory (Thompkins and Binder). Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) is another disorder that is associated with illiteracy, and often co-exists with other disabilities such as speech and language disorders or delays, and learning disabilities like dyslexia. Those suffering from CAPD do not have the ability to pay attention to an activity when there are noises. The sounds distract the brain making it excruciatingly hard to focus on anything but the noise. This causes a problem while reading and spelling which leads to a literacy problem, thus increasing the illiteracy rates in America (Bellis). Poverty is one of the biggest problems America faces today. Poverty breeds illiteracy because poor families are unable to support themselves; children are forced out of school to work. Poverty does not allow the equal opportunity for an education and/or skills required for everyday life. Without an education, children turn to crime or are forced to stay on the lowest levels of the work force and remain in poverty, repeating the cycle with each new generation. To break the cycle of illiteracy in homes facing poverty, a program to help these children and adults needs to be designed to get these people the help they need so our country’s people can advance in society. Greg Harman, a writer for the San Antonio Tex said, â€Å"There’s not investment in those who don’t vote, and there’s very small investment in the poor.† Greg Harman’s quote is true especially when talking about countries like Burkina Faso. Burkina Faso is located in West Africa and is one of the world’s poorest countries. Burkina Faso also has one of the lowest levels of literacy in the world. Only a measly 18.2 percent are able to read and write. Creating a quality of life happens not only through building sidewalks and streets, it is about investing in human capital (Harman). This is true for Angele Sanoua, a disabled woman who lives in Burkina Faso. She has described how disabled people in her country are shamed and, in most cases, banned from school and considered usless. She talked about her family being determined to get her into school and made sure she always went. After getting an education she founded the Disabled Womens Accociation in Burkina Faso allowing support and help to educate other diabled women. She says that having her education has empowered her to defend her rights (Cool Planet). This woman is an inspiration to her country and has helped many women get educations. All countries should have education groups like this to increase literacy in the world. Poverty is very much related to crime and these both are main causes of low literacy. Crime and illiteracy are based off eachother, nearly 50 percent of criminals in United States Prisons are illiterate. Sixty-five percent of highschool dropouts are criminals. A lack of education is one of the strongest predictors of criminal activity. In Washington State alone, in t he last 50 years, criminal and illiteracy rates have increased drastically. In 1960, the overall crime rate for Washington State was 63,688 crimes committed that year (including murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, motor vehicle). In 2009, a record 266,242 crimes were committed. The population in Washington increased, too. In 1960, the population of Washington was 2,853,214 people, but in 2009 the estimated population of Washington State grew to over 6.5 million people. Now, compare the crime increase to the population increase and then look at the rise in illiteracy, each of these have nearly tripled. This shows that as the United States has expanded so has the crime and illiteracy rates. There is no doubt that crime, population and illiteracy are related, 50 percent of criminals are illiterate and 80 percent of illiterate criminals live in povery. Reading is one way that will exponetially increase literacy. Teaching children and adults to read, write, and comprehend is not only an essential duty and investment in America’s future it is also and act of love (Corcoran). Learning to read and becoming a good reader at a young age is one of the most crucial things someon could do. Challenging your brain earlier in your life helps to counter brain-damaging diseases later on in life. Reading prior to the age of eighteen is also very important in predicting functions such as memory, attention and concentration. Reading at a younger age is just as cruical as reading at an older age. It can be seen when there is multiple generations reading together (Harman). Studies show that elderly people who read and play bingo often minimized their memory loss. Reading for older people helps a lot to strengthen bolster and hand-eye coordination (The Franklin Institute). Reading everyday exposes proper grammar and sentence structure. Also, reading a different genre frequently can actually increase knowledge by ten percent. Book clubs can be very he lpful and very fun when reading. Those who enjoy reading usually are in a book club to talk and discuss a book picked by the group. It is a great way to open up a person’s imagination and to aquire new information at the same time. Reading is a way for young people to go places and meet people. â€Å"Books can take you anywhere you want to go† (Tuck). Repeatedly talking about current reading improves memory and even increase grades for students. Book clubs improve comprehension skills and the abilitiy to interpret and think critically about text. Not to mention the fact that having a choice in the book makes it a fun way to empower and promote literacy development without even realizing it. Libraries and classrooms need to be able to offer books that speak to them and reflect the people’s reality (Luedeke). Reading a book that reflects something going on in a readers life is important because it allows a safe escape, and in most cases, offers a solution. Writing is also a very helpful way to increase literacy. Writing allows the ability to extend a line of thought without being judged, writing can also help with getting facts, inferences, and opinions without getting confused and without confusing the reader. Lastly, a great way to really get help and to improve is to stay in school. Having the opportunity to go to school automatically gives the opportunity to ask questions and get help needed to advance in life. When a student asks questions it does not leave them behind unsure and confused. Being unsure is not a good feeling, it can even cause people to give up. That is why asking questions is always a great way to stay caught up. Not to mention that adults who do not finish high school in the United States earn 65 percent less money of what people who have high school degrees earn. It is said that highschool dropouts are more likely to end up on welfare or in prison. There is more to illiteracy than being unable to read and write. The re are tons of reasons, and most of the time the person who gets catergorize as illiterate did not have the choice. They developed a disability that slowed them down. Or the family could not afford to have them in school so they had to drop out and get a job to help. Anyone should be able to get the help they need, and most people do not get it. Illiteracy is a problem that needs more attention because it is a huge issue and, in today’s economy, the more literate the population, the more advanced the world can become. Works Cited Harman, Greg. Strike against Literacy. San Antonio Tex (2010). National Center for Education Statistics. State and County Estimates of Low Literacy. 2003. National Assesment of Adult Literacy. http://nces.ed.gov/naal/estimates/StateEstimates.aspx. Literacy in the Media. Dir. John Cororan. Perf. John Corcoran. 2002. Luedeke, Lisa. Adolscent Literacy. Of Times, Teens, and Books. 2006. 61-80. Proliteracy. The Impacts of Literacy. 13 October 2008. www.proliteracy.org. Tuck, Justin. Rush for Literacy. Scholastic Choices (2010): 5. Bellis, Teri James. Understanding Auditory Processing Disorders in Children. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) (2004). Cool Planet. Disability and Education. 2002. Pitts, Jonathan. Health Guidance. 2010. http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/11478/1/Causes-of-Dyslexia-in-Children.html. The Franklin Institute. Reading and Bingo. 2004. Resources for Science Learning. http://www.fi.edu/learn/brain/exercise.html. Thompkins, Amanda C. and Katherine S . Binder. A Comparison of the Factors Affecting Reading Performance of Functionally Illiterate Adults and Children Matched by Reading Level. (2003): 236-258.

Roman Religion free essay sample

Roman religion played a fundamental role in most aspects of Roman society. It was a polytheistic religion with many gods, each with their own specific role. The Roman religion emerged from the worship of Numina and was combined with elements from the religions of surrounding countries. It could be divided into state and private religion. The two strands of religion each have their own ceremonies and significance. Fate is another important strand of Roman religion which had an impact on the Roman people. The main belief of Roman religion was that if the gods were happy, then they would ensure that the Romans had good fortune. Roman religion emerged from the beliefs of the early Roman people combined with other neighbouring country’s beliefs. The early Roman people lived in an agricultural society. Their livelihood depended on the weather and other elements which were out of their control. Drought could lead to crops failing and food shortages while the dangers of child birth affected the birth rate of the population. We will write a custom essay sample on Roman Religion or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Numina were their way of explaining these dangers as they didn’t have science. Numina were nature spirits which lived in streams, rocks, trees and other aspects of the natural environment. They were believed to have the ability to control nature and event in human life. They were neutral and could harm or help whoever they wanted. The Romans believed if they prayed or sacrificed to the Numina at small alters then they could gain their favour or at least avoid offending them. It was from this early Roman religion that the main view of worship as a contract came. If you worshipped the gods then they would help you. From the Etruscans to the north came temples and divination while from the Greeks who lived in Italy came the 12 Olympians and their myths. The Olympians became the Pantheon gods who were important in state religion. It was the second king of Rome, Pompilius who established the Roman state religion and the gods which were worshipped. The state gods had major influences upon the Romans. There were 12 main state gods. Jupiter, who was the king of the gods and the enforcer of fate. Juno, his wife who was the queen of the gods and the goddess of womanly things. Mars, the god of war. Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and domestic fire. Neptune, god of the sea. Minerva, goddess of wisdom. Ceres, goddess of crop fertility. Diana, goddess of the hunt. Apollo, god of healing and prophecy. Venus, goddess of love and beauty. Mercury, the messenger of the gods and lastly Vulcan, god of uncontrollable fire and metalwork. These 12 gods each had their own temples and the Romans would give offerings to them there. The four most important gods within the main 12 were most likely Jupiter, Juno, Mars and Vesta. Jupiter was portrayed as being the Paterfamilias of the empire. He was the chief god and defender of the state and could be asked for help in war. The portrayal of Jupiter as the father of the empire meant that Romans looked to him for the health of the state. Juno as Jupiter’s wife could be seen as the Matrona of the nation. She was responsible for the birth rate of the nation as well as female concerns such as childbirth and marriage. Because of this she was often prayed to by the Roman women and was important in many ceremonies and rituals. Mars became important to the Romans in terms of empire building. He was seen as a protector and defender of Rome as well as a promoter of military victory and glory. He was prayed and sacrificed to for good success in war and conquests. Vesta was important in that she personified domestic fire which was essential for daily life. Her priestesses, the Vestal Virgins, attended to a fire that burned in her temple. It was believed that while the fire burned, Rome was safe. 3 The Romans were influenced by the state gods as they were able to ask the gods for help within the area of power that the god had control over. All of the 12 state gods, along with many other minor gods and goddesses were able to help the Romans through prayer and sacrifice. Prayer influenced the Romans as a prayer was the Romans way of contacting a deity. There were four distinct stages to a prayer. Firstly, they must persuade the god to listen. This was done by making sure the go was correctly identified. For example, a pregnant woman would pray to Juno Lucina, not just Juno. If the god isn’t correctly identified, they don’t have the obligation to listen and answer the prayer. Secondly, they must convince the god it is within their power to answer the prayer, either through flattery or by recalling similar deeds that the deity had done in the past. Thirdly, they would ask the god for what they wanted, making sure the request was humble. Lastly, they would promise an offering in return. 4 Prayers were made to the relevant deity. For example, a prayer for love would be made to Venus. If there was even the smallest mistake in the prayer, then this could be fatal to the fulfilment of the prayer. Prayer influenced the Romans as it led to the belief that if the Romans followed the correct prayer procedures then the gods would answer their prayer. This led to a contract style relationship. Often prayer was accompanied with sacrifice. For sacrifice, the animal or animals are selected and led to an alter outside the temple. Silence apart from a flute player’s music is called for. The priest then removes any decorations from the animal and sprinkles sacred flour over the animal and the knife. The person says the prayer and then the animal is struck over the head to stun it and its throat is slit. The blood and organs are collected while the rest of the meat was cooked and eaten. 4There was a number of specific things that the sacrifice has to follow. Most important was the selection of the animal. If the god was male hten the animal should be male and vice versa. If it was an underworld god then the animal should be black, otherwise it should be white. Also, the animal would have to be in perfect condition, otherwise it would offend the gods and likewise if the animal struggled through the ceremony. The sacrifice ritual was a way of establishing a route of communication with the deity. The prayer was used to send the request to the god. The god’s answer would be interpreted either from the inspecting of the organs or from the success or failure of the ceremony. For example, if the animal struggled while its throat was being slit then this would be a bad omen and a sign of the sacrifices failure. 6 Sacrifice influenced the Romans as they believed that in order for a god to do something for them, then they would have to give it an offering in return. This reinforced the contract style relationship with the gods that prayer created. Priests generally conducted sacrifice ceremonies and were responsible for other important matters in state religions. The priesthoods of Rome controlled Roman religion meaning they had large influences upon the Romans. There were two main priesthoods, Pontifices and Augurs. The pontifices were in charge of the running of the religion and of lesser priesthoods while the augurs were to make sure an action undertaken by the state had the approval of the gods. The head pontifice was the Pontifex Maximus. Julius Caesar assumed this role during his reign to control popular worship and Augustus followed this by taking the title. This trend continued with the title being given to the Roman emperors as it was deemed too important for an ordinary Roman citizen. 2 The pontiffs controlled worship and performed the important state ceremonies. They made the rules for public worship, regulated state events and had the power to punish inferior priests. Priesthoods which the pontiffs controlled included the flames and the vestal virgins as well as others. The flamines were priests that were assigned to a certain god or goddess. The flamines had to look after the temple and they performed the sacrificial rituals. The vestal virgins were responsible for caring for the fire that burned at Vesta’s temple. They also guarded special religions objects which were kept in Vesta’s temple. There were only six vestals at any one time that were chosen between the ages of 6-10. It was a great honour to be a vestal virgin. 4 Augurs interpreted the flight patterns of birds. They were consulted before any major state decisions were taken to ensure that the gods approved. If the augurs saw a sign that was a bad omen then the activity would be stopped or delayed. 4 Priesthoods influenced the Romans as they gave the wealthy opportunities for positions with powers and responsibilities. They also influenced Romans by offering a sense of prestige. For example, wealthy Roman whose daughter was a Vestal Virgin would be looked upon with great respect and admiration. As well as managing worship, priests also played a part in festivals and the religious calendar Roman festivals influenced the Romans by offering them an opportunity to worship their deities in a large scale. Roman festivals were controlled by the Roman calendar. About half the days on the Roman calendar were festivals or days of worship as the Romans didn’t have a weekend. Some of the festivals had a fixed day, while others could be moved (similar to our Easter) One of the most popular Roman festivals was the Lupercalia which occurred in February. It was a purification festival which promoted fertility. Two teams of young men would meet at a cave on the Palatine hill. Goats and a dog would be sacrificed and the two team leaders would have their foreheads smeared with their blood and milk. After this was done they had to let out a loud laugh. There would then be a feast where lots of wine was drunk and the young men wearing only the goats skins would race along to the bottom of the Palatine hill. They would use pieces of goatskin to whip anyone they met as they ran. This was believed to promote fertility. As well as festivals which occurred annually, special festivals could be held for crises. Crises could include war, famine, epidemics or bad omens. Festivals offered the Romans many things. They gave them days off work, excitement and something to look forward to and offered tradition. Most importantly they allowed for the worship of a deity by the whole state which would most likely ensure the goodwill of the gods. Festivals influenced Romans as they gave the Romans a break from their daily lives and allowed them to have fun while they worshipped their gods. While state religion offered a connection between the state and the gods, private religion offered the individual a chance to incorporate the gods into their daily lives. As state religion had its gods which guarded the state, so did private religion. The father of the family took on the role of ensuring that the family took the proper steps to ensure co-operation from the gods in their daily lives. It was important that the Romans received this co-operation and few Romans would make any major decisions in their lives without consulting the gods first. Most Romans felt they had a personal connection with one of the gods and it would be to this god that they would generally pray to for assistance. The four main household gods were the Genius, the Lares, the Penates and the Janus. The Genius was a spirit which protected the head of the household. The Genius would be honoured on the head of the household’s birthday. During Augustus’ reign, he created a cult to his Genius and turned this idea into a form of a state cult which developed into emperor worship. Worshipping the Genius showed the Romans respect towards the head of the household. The Lares represented the family’s ancestral spirits. They watched over the home and were the closest things the Romans had to personal gods. However, they didn’t have individual personalities and so remained anonymous and the Romans didn’t have a personal relationship with them. 3 The Lares were worshipped at the Lararium which was a small cupboard where small statuettes which represented the Lares stood as well as other precious items. Any offerings such as incense or wine could be placed in there. Worship of the Lares showed the Romans’ fear of death and the belief that they had to respect the dead encase they became haunted by them. The Penates watched over the pantry. The Romans honoured these spirits as they ensured that the family had enough food to eat each day. 9 The Penates alter was the hearth which they shared with Vesta. Worship of the Penates show the Romans belief that food is essential for survival and that without it starvation can occur. By worshipping the god of the pantry, they can show their thanks that they have food. The Janus was the spirit which guarded the doorway to the home. He had 2 faces and therefore could look in two different directions. He is unusual in that he is completely unique to Roman religion, unlike the majority of other Roman gods. The Janus was worshipped so that the Romans could give thanks to the gods for that their homes were protected. 10 Romans worshipped these gods to give thanks for their role in helping the Romans in their daily lives. Romans would give a small daily offering of thanks but on festival days the offering may be bigger and the help of that particular god would be celebrated. For example, the first day of every month was dedicated to the Janus and so a particular offering to the Janus may have been given on that day. Private religion is also seen throughout the Romans life through rites of passage and not just in daily worship. 4 Rites of passage celebrated the achievements of Romans such as surviving birth and getting married. The gods played a large role in these rites of passage and so it was important the Romans acknowledged their role. Childbirth was a dangerous and risky process in the ancient world. It was believed that the co-operation of the gods and in particular Juno Lucina was essential for its success. Rituals surrounding birth included the picking up f the baby by the father to accept it into the family, the ritual purification of the home by three men to cleanse the home of evil spirits and the offerings made to Juno and Hercules for thanks and protection. These rituals symbolise the uncertainties of childbirth and the belief by the Romans that they needed the gods’ assistance for the child to survive and that they had to give thanks for that assistance. To help protect the child from any evil spirits a bulla or protective amulet would be placed around their neck. 4 The next rite of passage where the gods played a major role was marriage. There were a number of rituals which took place within the marriage ceremony which were designed to ensure that the gods approved of the marriage. These included examining the organs of a sacrificed animal for any omens, the procession to the groom house where Fesceninne jesting took place to ward off evil spirits and bad luck and the carrying of the bride over the threshold to avoid her tripping which would be a bad omen. All of these rituals were to ensure that the gods approved of the marriage and that no bad spirits or omens would spoil the ceremony. 4 Death was the final rite of passage which a Roman went through. There were many rituals to ensure that the person got to the afterlife without the living becoming contaminated by contact with the dead. Some rituals from the funeral include, the laying of the dying person on the ground to symbolise their returning to the earth, the lighting of the pyre by a close relative who would turn his face away from the pyre so he wouldn’t be contaminated by evil spirits and the cleaning of the house and offerings to the Lares after the eight day mourning period. The Romans knew little about death and so were afraid of it. Performing these rituals made them feel that the dead person would be able to move into the afterlife and that the living wouldn’t be contaminated by the contact with the dead. All of these rites of passage, along with the daily sacrifices to the household gods show the influence of Roman gods on the Romans. 4 The fates were three goddesses who presided over the fate of the Romans. They were described as being in control of the spinning and the management of the thread of life. Clotho held the distaff, Lachesis turned the wheel and Atropos cut the thread. They were the daughters of Jupiter and Themis. They determined the length of a person’s life and any important incidents or events that may occur within their life. They had absolute power meaning that anything they said would happen would happen. The gods were able to meddle in this and change how the person arrived at that event but they couldn’t change the event or prevent it from happening. Jupiter was in charge of making sure that the gods didn’t prevent the events from happening. He did this as one of his roles as being the king of the gods was to enforce the will of fate. The fates were always of the same mind and they spared nobody. They affected both common and wealthy Romans. It was believed that the three of them symbolised that all things have a beginning, progress and an end. Fate influenced Romans in a number of ways. Firstly, fate meant that a Romans life was predetermined at birth which meant that the events in a Romans life were already determined. The Romans reacted to this in two ways. Firstly, although the main events in their life are predetermined, how these events happen and what happens in between them can be influenced by the gods. Because of this, they would still pray and sacrifice to the gods as they still wanted to ensure the goodwill of the gods. They didn’t take the attitude of ‘what’s going to happen will happen so there isn’t much point in asking the gods for help,’ as this was an arrogant attitude and may offend the gods. The second way they reacted was by trying to interpret omens which were sent by the gods so that they could have some control over their own life. They interpreted omens through divination. Forms of divination include augury, haruspicy, lightning, consulting the Sibylline Books astrology, dream interpretation and interpreting unsought omens. A Roman may have a dream that he is going to be a soldier. He would interpret this as an omen from the gods that he was fated to become a soldier and when he was ready, enlist. Even though fate is still happening and he is fulfilling his destiny by becoming a soldier, he knew it was going to happen which gave him control over his destiny. It was in this way that divination made the Romans feel that they had some control over a situation where their lives are completely planned for them and they have no free will. It was in these ways that fate influenced the Romans. The Roman gods and fate influenced the Romans in a number of ways. The state gods influenced prayer, sacrifice, priesthoods and festivals while the household gods affected Roman’s daily lives as well as the rites of passage which occurred throughout their lives. Fate influenced the Romans as it led to them using divination to try and discover what their fate might be. The influence of the gods and fate on the Romans is apparent in most aspects of their lives. 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